Geriatric Nursing Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Geriatric Nursing - Article Example People who reported tooth loss were 2.7 times more likely to report chewing difficulty onset than people without tooth loss. The article concluded that the incident of tooth loss and removable prosthodontic restoration strongly predicted chewing difficulties, and important component of OHRQoL. The author of the article presented important facts supported by studies and articles. The study/research was supported by articles and books from where the idea was taken from by the author. An example of it is when the author claims the "Tooth loss can have a substantial influence on quality of life". By referencing it properly what the author claims is very well supported. Another example is the part wherein he mentioned on the "agreement between self-reported and clinically examined tooth loss was high." This was taken from Gilbert ,et.al Comparison of two methods of estimating 48 months tooth loss incident. There are at least 18 references which are more than 10 years older. It still supports the document but there are some articles which may have a new or revised version. There are 5 reference that are within the last 5 years . The implications of the article in the health care of the geriatric patient are important. Chewing problem may result in several clinical illnesses such as weight loss, dehydration and debility.

Fiction-writing mode Essay Example for Free

Fiction-writing mode Essay Rhetorical modes are methods for effectively communicating through language and writing. Complete the following chart to identify the purpose and structure of the various rhetorical modes used in academic writing. Provide at least 2 tips for writing each type of rhetorical device. |Rhetorical Mode |Purpose – Explain when or why |Structure – Explain what organizational |Provide 2 tips for writing in | | |each rhetorical mode is used. |method works best with each rhetorical mode. |each rhetorical mode. | |Narration |The purpose of a narration is to| | Start with asking yourself if | | |tell stories. Narrations can be |Chronological order, which is a method of |you want to write a factual or | | |factual; story based on events |organization that arranges ideas according to|fictional story. Next, make a | | |as they happened in real life, |time, is the best organizational method for |plot summary, which is a | | |or fictional; made up or |narration. |paragraph or outline that | | |imagined | |describes only the main events | | | | |that drive the story forward. | | |The purpose of an illustration |Order of importance, which is a method of |First, decide on a topic that | |Illustration |is to clearly demonstrate and |organization that arranges ideas according to|you are interested in writing | | |support a point through the use |their significance, is the best |about. Secondly, vary the phases| | |of evidence. |organizational method for illustration. |of illustration you use. This | | | | |way, readers will stay engaged | | | | |in your writing and ideas. | |Description |The purpose of a description is |Spatial order, which is a method of |Does your writing follow a flow?| | |to make sure the audience is |organization that arranges ideas according to|Good writing is focused. Is | | |fully immersed in the words on |physical characteristics or appearance, is |writing written for a purpose? | | |the page. The writer describes |the best organizational them. |Good writing is grammatically | | |his or her world through sensory| |correct a

Television as We Know it Today Essay -- Essays Papers

Television as We Know it Today The Power Rangers, RoadRunner, Bugs Bunny and Yo Sammity Sam. What do all of these have in common? They are all shows upon which we build our child’s playtime. You sit your child in front of the television for hours at a time. They stair at the screen with glossy eyes and total amazement. Yet what is it that they are learning from these shows? It is the hidden message of violence and dysfunction, which keeps children entertained. If you look at all of the shows, which I have mentioned above, they seem to have a common theme. Violence. Whether this message is intended or not is another issue, however, the violence is there. The Power Rangers for example, their mission is to save the planet from evil space monsters. How do they achieve this? By killing the monsters, thus becoming heroes. The RoadRunner, every week he tries to kill Wielly Coyote. He instead gets killed each time, but it is only temporary. Finally we come to Bugs Bunny and Yo Sammity Sam. Each time, Yo Sammity Sam, tries to kill Bugs Bunny, chasing after him with a shotgun. What type of message is this sending to our youth? Children see violence as their entertainment. As adults we know the difference between what is real and what isn’t. Do children know this difference as well? When a character dies but only for a second, do children know this is not how it really is? In one study by a scientist named Linne (Condry p.89) it was found that television these cartoons do effect how children think. Cartoons how the person with power to come out on top as the triumphant winner-of - all. After exposure to violent cartoons children were less likely to share with one another and more likely to use aggression as a means to... ...following that pattern out of belief that we too posses these characteristics. By constantly viewing violent shows we have learned to believe that we live in a violent culture. It allows us to view our own acts of violence as well as others as being normal and acceptable. When we turn on the television we turn on more than just entertainment. We turn on a part of ourselves that is almost subliminally derived. We allow ourselves be impressed upon by the notions of violence being common and acceptable. This notion is something that we keep with us. You may push a button on your television set and watch the screen go dim. However the ideas in your head will long remain once the show is done. Works Cited Condry, John C., The Psychology of Television. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc., New Jersey. 1989. www.geocities.com/dreampackers, April 20, 2000

Standards Based Education: The Base for Improving Schools

Since nearly twenty years, education in the United States has been strongly impacted by â€Å"standards movement†. Linked proximally to evaluation and answerability, standard-based reforms, not like most other educational systems like open education, behavioral goals, and least ability, has gained ground in an extremely severe and all-encompassing manner. Right from parents to policy-makers, there is an ardent countrywide support to use standards as the base for improving schools. (The Virginia Standards of Learning) As per Collins Cobuild dictionary, â€Å"a standard is a stage of quality or achievement, particularly a stage which is considered to be good enough. It is something used to calculate or approximate the quality or degree of something, for instance, the degree of superiority of a piece of work. † In the sphere of education, a standard is a word that describes a growing body of knowledge and set of expertise which is the foundation for quality education. They put across what every student must know and be capable to perform, however do not state pedagogy. Why have a standards-based curriculum and what are the implications for the teaching-learning-assessment process? ) The quintessence of a â€Å"standard† is to depict a level of knowledge or performance that is necessary for some reason. For instance, there is a standard fixed by the telephone companies relating to the manner operators communicate with the customers, by the State Government to deliver driving licenses, a intensity of accuracy is necessary for building autos, and a set of unambiguous strategy for assessing gymnastics, diving, and ice skating. In an identical manner, teachers employ objectives of the students to find out what will be imparted, and as a criterion for making grades for student†s work. Each of these â€Å"standards† has two parts: an account of what will be recognized or performed, and a suggestion of quality of its performance. In education, these two magnitudes have been pointed as content standard and performance standards, and they point out to fairly diverse concepts, each having a separate set of connotation. (The Virginia Standards of Learning) Discuss the positive effects and attributes of standard-based education. In standard-based education, the syllabus and units of study are distinctly delineated, comprehended by the teachers and students and conveyed to every employee, families and the community. Standard-based education system will promote fair play, foster learning of students and strengthen answerability. (Standards-Based Education: www. thompson. k12. co. us) Establishing standards is a vital and efficient learning instrument as they state distinct prospect of what every student must have an understanding and capable of doing with the language. They can be supportive to various populations like the state, districts and school, teachers, student and parents. Establishing a national standard lets to setting aside for identical chance for every student. To start with every student is evaluated against the same standards. In the absence of a universal standard and every teacher establishing his or her independent standard, the expectation of the school on their student will be diverse. As there will be no element for comparison, instruction as well as assessment cannot be unswerving. Secondly, in the event of establishing a national standard, it is obvious what the students will be learning at various stages of their education. Examination provided by the state can assess the development of the student towards achievement of the standard. The students who are failing in achieving the standards can be given preliminary, efficient help. (Why have a standards-based curriculum and what are the implications for the teaching-learning-assessment process? ) Discuss the benefits for both educator and student. Standards set students to fix particular objectives with understanding of the particular prospect and norms for success. This lets to set objectives that are attainable. The evenness of a standard based procedure currently opens opportunities to individuals. Customized learning methods, learning at one†s independent speed, identification of the specific learning that requires to happen, aids in describing the manner in which and what students are required to be aware and be capable to perform to attain the age suitable standard, as observed by several remarks. (Standard-based Education: schools. coventryschools. net) The transition to standards-based evaluation aids in building a culture of success in which every student can attain a satisfactory standard. In case of students, standard established apparent performance prospects, aiding them to comprehend what they are required to do so as to fulfill the standards. These works lets the students to exhibit their knowledge, including the norm for evaluation. This gives students and parents with valuable data regarding the performance towards fulfilling the standards. Besides, while dealing with standards based syllabus, schools will be competent to report the growth of the student towards attaining the standards by stating the yardsticks they have attained. Why have a standards-based curriculum and what are the implications for the teaching-learning-assessment process? ) Standards are very impartially described. This lets teachers to employ their ingenuity and expertise to find out which strategies function optimally with both individual as well as a group of students. (Standard-based Education: schools. coventryschools. net) Standards assist teachers devise syllabus, guidelines and evaluation on the basis of what is vital to have knowledge about. Standards gives the information required to train educators in shaping the development of students in achieving the standards, as stated in the syllabus. Teachers, the educational institution and the state are responsible for the education of the student based on the achievement of these standards. As the standards give a transparent and structured perspective for evaluation, it is thus likely to find out the degree to which the standards have been achieved. (Why have a standards-based curriculum and what are the implications for the teaching-learning-assessment process? ) How does standard-based education improve education? Standard-based education has come to be widespread political reform group as it mingles a lot of factors that concentrates on what is normally construed to be a â€Å"failing public school†. This has resulted to provide an importance on â€Å"high† standards that means improved or more challenging or â€Å"world class† standards. During 1999, the National Education Summit evaluated the standards association since 1996, deciding that the danger of deteriorating quality of education be first of all found out in A Nation at Risk in 1983 stays in 1999. The report states, the American citizen†s exhibit that it evidently comprehends that our persistent economic strength, social permanence, quality of life is dependent on our capability to radically progress our schools. The report further declares that the promises to increased standards have unambiguously come to be a central factor in a countrywide movement to enhance school performance. Of late, the research undertaken by an institute ‘Public Agenda† point out to a popular displeasure among college teachers and employers of students† fundamental skills. A second feature of standard-based improvements stresses superior performance of every student. This is a matter of fairness. Supporters of standards-based education consider that poor performing students did not have access to equal education as persistent abysmal expectations from these students have been responsible for their low performance. Therefore, it is reasoned that standard-based improvement will enhance education in case of financially deprived and minority group students by increasing the prospects. (The Virginia Standards of Learning) The rising difference in the earning levels in US will be lessened as the existing gap as regards education between low and high performing students is lowered. Standards, it is debated, â€Å"smoothens the playing field,† and will result in less sorting based for the most part on social class and ethic category which they belong. In the event students do not display achieving the standards, then in that case solution and withholding might be suitable. A third feature is the manner in which the standards are linked to rewards and encouragement. As against much of the research that has stressed the significance of child-centered, developmentally suitable procedures to education, standards-based supporters consider that rivalry and external rewards will encourage students and enhance performance. This is founded mostly on edginess with earlier â€Å"movements† aimed by educators, and the activity in other nations, together with international studies, which imply American students trailing. Fundamentally, the contention is that American schools and students require external inducements to endeavor for higher levels of performance. At present, 20 states give financial help to schools wherein students perform in a better manner on standard-based tests. Fourth, there is an increased statewide and federal evaluation and influence over schools is required. The seeming urgency is to set up a single set of standards and one wide-ranging vision in case of all students cutting across all grade levels. The thrust for national standards during the mid-1990s has resulted to an ardent involvement across the state since the stage at which standards-based educational policy is made and executed. Due to this, a lot of meetings, publications, and reports regarding standards-based improvement have been produced by organizations which are responsive to the requirements of the policy-makers of the state. (The Virginia Standards of Learning) What is the best process for developing an effective curriculum when dealing with the standard-based education. The goal of the curriculum as per the Standards is to execute certain jobs within a specific time frame. These jobs must be accomplished in a specific order. At the time a student learns a subject in this way, he/she builds on existing knowledge. It becomes simpler in case of students to go on learning, when they have a basis of knowledge. As Maurice Johnson describes in his Schema, â€Å"Structure is a fundamental feature of curriculum† (EDE 6205: Elementary School Curriculum) I think that there is an urgency on our part to perform more to assess our curriculum. In case we are adhering to the Standards as outlined, our assessment of the results has to be more proficient. The Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test — FCAT gives scanty information on the efficacy of the Standard based curriculum. To evaluate learning appropriately, it is required that we are capable of accessing what background knowledge a student is equipped and what knowledge he has amassed after the training. Iowa State University administers a program in which they supply syllabus written in accordance with the standards the school desires. The effectiveness of that particular curriculum is assessed two times in a year. Students are tested initially in the beginning of the year as also during the end of the year. This testing is done annually. This method gives a more efficient manner of estimating the quantity of learning that is being imparted. (EDE 6205: Elementary School Curriculum) FCAT in all means cannot be a productive instrument in calculating the quantum of learning which is happening. The calculations are extended out and accidental. Prior to the establishment of the Sunshine State Standards in May 1996, the primary state curriculum guidance was the Minimum Student Performance Standards. These standards gave the source for the Statewide Student Assessment Tests. With a view to raising the academic challenge in Florida, the Sunshine State Standards were formed. They were supposed to attain over the minimum capabilities to challenging academic standards. According to Tyler, while formulating any curriculum plan of instruction one should choose what the educational objective must the school look for to achieve. Subsequently, what are the educational experiences which can be given which are expected to achieve these objectives? Thirdly, the manner in which these educational experiences be efficiently managed, and lastly how we can resolve these objectives are being achieved. The Sunshine State Standards gives an excellent catapulting point in presenting course of action for curriculum development. (EDE 6205: Elementary School Curriculum) What are and justify the positive contributions of standard based education. â€Å"Need is the mother of all inventions†. (Standard-based Education: schools. coventryschools. net) This sums up a declaration made by an observer. Standard based education is countrywide crusade because of the countrywide requirement. Of course there is present and there has been extensive apprehension over the quality of public education. Several people mentioned that they identified that it was crucial that education is standardized so that regardless of the place children received education, regardless of what socio-economic or cultural backgrounds that they possess, the scope to get knowledge which is at par and good education as everybody others. One of the member commented â€Å"School A should not be deprived compared to school B. † Correctly declared by one parent, the job force has undergone a transformation. This transformation effected by an international economy and international economic rivalry has compelled our nation into the embarrassing state of being second category. Education in our nation did not modify along with the economic modification. This has brought governmental concern with education to light. Students should be given the proficiency and knowledge to compete in the world in a better manner. Standard-based Education: schools. coventryschools. net) How does the no child left behind act is associated with the standard-based education plan. Widely recognized as the ‘No Child Left Behind†, — NCLB Act of 2001 was the collective consequences of a standards-and-testing transition that was initiated with the publication of the report A Nation at Risk by the Reagan government in 1983. The movement attained due impetus with the 1989 education summit in Charlottesville, Virginia, at which the President George H. W. Bush and the governors of the nation fixed extensive performance objective for the American Schools. The ‘America 2000†³ proposal of President Bush by the end of 1991 incorporated the voluntary national testing associated with the ‘world class† standards. This provision gives rise to termination of the Bill by the opposition exerted by Republican radicals. President Clinton accorded assent to the ‘Goals 2000†³ in 1994 that provided grants to assist states in devising academic parameters. Widespread change was visualized with the 1994 reauthorization of the Elementary and secondary education Act that indicated a nationwide commitment to the standard-based reform. The re-sanction necessitated states to generate content and performance parameters in respect of the K-12 schools. (The Politics of No Child Left Behind) Congress also implemented the notion of ‘adequate yearly progress† which afterwards become the key player of liability in No Child Left Behind. However, the 1994 re-sanction started the process of devising standards and tests in most of the states. (The Politics of No Child Left Behind) The federal government anticipates more liability from state education systems and the assurance that no child will be left behind. States are to enhance the student testing, collect and disseminate subgroup consequences assuring a highly skilled teacher in every classroom and assuring that all students irrespective of their socio-economic conditions attain a proficient level of education by the 2014-2015 academic years. No Child Left Behind Act of 2001) NCLB thus reinforces the federal pressure on all states to pursue a standards-based reform agenda. This incorporates a high academic standard for all students; extra supplementation to assist the students and schools to cater to such standards; enhanced suppleness for local schools in order for them to do so; and greater liability for the consequences especially calculated by the activities of the students on standardized assessments.

Adoption of Information and Communication Technology Essay

Abstract Nigerian banking industry has become highly ICT-based and is reaping the benefits of technological revolution as evidenced by its application in most of its operations. The objective of this paper was to determine if the Nigerian banks have failed or succeeded in the adoption and use of ICT (see table 2.1). An evaluation of the adoption and use of ICT infrastructures from the periods between years 2000 to 2008 indicated steady growth. It is presumed that as of today, the Nigerian banks may have attained their ICT potentials in their operations, though with some challenges. The paper concludes that the adoption of ICT has influenced the content and quality of banking operations. This paper recommends that investment in information and communication technology should form an important component in the overall strategy of banking operators to ensure effective operations. Keywords: Information, Communication, Technology, Banking & Industry. INTRODUCTION Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is the automation of processes, controls, and information production using computers, telecommunications, software and other gadget that ensure smooth and efficient running of activities. It is a term that largely covers the coupling of electronic technology for the information needs of a business at all levels. ICT has surpassed the role of support services or only electronic data processing; its fields of applications are slightly global and unlimited. Its devices especially the Internet and modern computer email facilities have further strengthened early modernizations like the telephone and fax. Other ICT devices include data recognition equipment, factory automation hardware and services, telecomputing and teleconferences using real time and online system (Adeoti, 2005). The application of information and communication technology concepts, techniques, policies and implementation strategies to banking services has become a subject of fundamental importance and concerns to all banks and indeed a prerequisite for local and global competitiveness. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) directly affects how managers decide, how they plan and what products and services are offered in the banking industry. It has continued to change the way banks and their corporate relationships are organized worldwide and the variety of innovative devices available to enhance the speed and quality of service delivery. Harold and Jeff (1995) contend that financial service providers should modify their traditional operating practices to remain viable in the 1990s and the decades that follow. They claim that the most significant shortcoming in the banking industry today is a wide spread failure on the part of senior management in banks to grasp the importance of technology and incorporate it into their strategic plans accordingly. Considering ICT to ensure banks survival, Woherem (2000) claimed that only banks that overhaul the whole of their payment and delivery systems and apply ICT to their operations are likely to survive and prosper in the new millennium. He advices banks to re-examine their service and delivery systems in order to properly position them within the framework of the dictates of the dynamism of information and communication technology. The banking industry has witnessed tremendous changes linked with the developments in ICT over the years. Nigerian banks have undergone changes in their operations since the consolidation process of 2005, when some banks were forced to merge with others to meet Central Bank of Nigeria’s (CBN) recapitalisation fund necessary for operation. Until then, most of the banks operated paper based systems at inception and later adjusted at the dawn of ICT revolution. In recent times, ICT, which basically involves the use of electronic gadgets especially computers for storing, analyzing and distributing data, is having a dramatic influence on almost all aspects of individual lives and that of the national economy – the banking sector inclusive. The increasing use of ICT has allowed for integration of different economic units in a spectacular way. This phenomenon is not only applicable to Nigeria but other economies of the world, though the level of their usage may differ. In Nigeria, ICT usage especially in the banking sector, has considerably improved, even though it may not have been as high as those observed for advanced countries (Adeoti, 2005; Adeyemi, 2006). The use of ICT in the banking sector became of interest to this study due to the significant role it plays in the economy. It helps in stimulating economic growth by directing funds to economic agents that need them for productive activities. This function is very vital for any economy that intends to experience meaningful growth because it makes arrangements that bring borrowers and lenders of financial resource together and more efficiently too than if they had to relate directly with one another (Adam, 2005; Ojo, 2007). In essence, the banking sector acts as a bridge that connects lenders and investors in the economy. The bank reforms (especially the recapitalization that specifies a minimum capital base of 25 billion naira for commercial banks), are pursued with a view to making the sector realize its objectives in advancing the economy (CBN, 2006). It is expected that the impact of these reforms will be enhanced with the use of ICT because it will create some form of competitive advantage and improve banking services through accuracy and efficiency in their transactions. In other words, it will change the nature of banks’ services in terms of quality which will culminate in greater service delivery and productivity. This is in tandem with the findings made by Adeoti (2005) that the use of information technology has the ability of improving the competitiveness of Nigerian manufacturing industries. In fact, ICT has had an impact on the Banking Industry as its emergence allows banks to apply credit-scoring techniques to consumer credits, mortgages or credit cards. Hence, products that used to be highly dependent on the banks ´ evaluation of its customers have now become more standardized. Other examples of ICT impact on the Banking Industry include the increased process efficiency, which can reduce costs in banks. This has also produced changes in the structure of bank income. As a result of increased competition that has lowered margins in lending operations (the banks’ traditional business), banks have diversified their sources of income and rely increasingly on income from fees services rather than interest rate spreads. Fees charged for services include typical banking activities like payment transactions, safe custody and account administration. Data storage and retrieval is another wonderful innovation brought into the Banking Industry, where specialized software is engaged to create database to be manipulated by Database Management Software (DBMS). A single database created could be used for several purposes within the system in order to eliminate data redundancy. From the above discourse, this paper seeks to determine whether or not the adoption of ICT enhances the operations of Nigerian banks. To achieve this, the introductory part of this paper after defining what ICT is, clearly established that to remain viable in the current age as financial concerns, banks must adopt ICT. In the succeeding sections, the paper will review relevant literature and identify the types of ICT infrastructures used in Banks; the benefits and effects of ICT on banking industry will be discussed, after which an evaluation of its success or failure will be done; then, the conclusion and recommendations will be made. LITERATURE REVIEW The Concept of ICT and a Perspective in Nigerian Banks Technology can be referred to as the application of knowledge for the execution of a given task. It entails skills and processes necessary for carrying out activities (works) in a given context, while ICT encompasses computer systems, telecommunication, networks, and multimedia applications (Frenzel, 1996). It came into use in the late 1980’s replacing earlier terms like Electronic Data Processing (EDP), Management Information System (MIS), although the latter terms are still in use (Frenzel, 1996). ICT has transcended the role of support services or only electronic data processing; its fields of applications are somewhat global and unlimited. Its devices especially the Internet through the World Wide Web (www) and modern computer email facilities have further strengthened early innovations like the telephone and fax. Other ICT devices include data recognition equipment, factory automation hardware and services, tele-computing and teleconferences using real time and online system (Adeoti, 2005). It is a concept that is having a remarkable effect on almost entire aspects of the human endeavours. This connotes that it involves the application of principles to engage physical component in achieving an intended goal. The convergence of computer and telecommunication after about four decades of applying computers to routine data processing, mainly in information storage and retrieval, has created a new development where information has become the engine of growth around the world. This development has created catch-up opportunities for developing countries such as Nigeria to attain desired levels of development without necessarily ‘reinventing the wheels’ of economic growth. This new technology has brought far-reaching revolution in societies, which has tremendously transformed most business (banking) scenes (Ovia, 2005). With respects to the banks in Nigeria, the first established bank was in 1892 (then African Banking Corporation). However, there was no banking legislation until 1952 when three foreign banks (Bank of British West Africa, Barclays Bank, and British and French Bank) and two indigenous banks (National Bank of Nigeria and African Continental Bank) were established, with a total number of 40 branches (Iganiga, 1998). As at 1988, the Nigerian banking system consisted of the CBN, 42 commercial banks and 24 merchant banks (Iganiga, 1998; Adam, 2005). From 1970, the banking sector grew significantly in terms of number and coverage as a result of increase in economic activities. However, between 1970 and 1985, the growth of the sector was relatively slow due to predominant government regulations but the period 1986-2000 witnessed a phenomenal growth of the sector as a result of the financial deregulation policy, that is the Structural Adjustment Program-SAP of 1986 (Iganiga, 1998). This brought about the liberalization of bank licence leading to a rapid change in the sector. Some of the banks were characterized by paper oriented methods, rather than technological based systems and this resulted to slow pace of their operations vis-à  -vis their employees’ productivity cum general performance. The use of computers and other ICT gadgets in their operations were limited. This was one of the reasons adduced by Ojo (2007) as factors responsible for the Nigerian financial sector malaise. To mitigate the shocks experienced in the system, the Federal Government of Nigeria came up with the financial sector reforms through the CBN. The policy thrust on bank reforms encompasses the sum of the variations that occur in the direction of a comprehensive banking system. The bank reforms agenda, among others, specified a minimum capital base of 25 billion naira for the commercial banks that took effect in December, 2005 (Diamond Bank, 2005; CBN, 2006). This has reduced the number of commercial banks in Nigeria from 89 to 25, which was done via the processes of mergers, acquisition and the stock market (CBN, 2006; Ige, 2007). The major aim was to make Nigerian banks vibrant and resilient, clothed with efficiency and financial strength to absorb possible shocks, thereby instilling public confidence as well as global relevance (Soludo, 2004). ICT and Nigerian Banking Sector The revolution in ICT has made the banking sector changed from the traditional mode of operations to presumably better ways with technological innovation that improves efficiency. ICT can enhance efficiency via its use and in recent times banks have been encouraged by the rapid decline in the price of ICT gadgets. This has perhaps increased the bank level of ICT usage (Ovia, 2005).The increase might have also be attributable to business environment that became relatively flexible to accommodate new forms of technological change as a result of reforms in the country. Banking is becoming highly ICT-based and because of its inter-sectoral link, it appears to be reaping most of the benefits of revolution in technology, as can be seen by its application to almost all areas of its activities (Akinuli, 1999). It has broadened the scope of banking practices and changed the nature of banking as well as the competitive environment in which they operate. A broad opening has been experienced around the world for banks and they are currently taking due advantage of these innovations to provide improved customer services in the face of competition and faster services that enhance productivity (Akinuli, 1999; Ovia,2005). Technological advancement facilitates payments and creates convenient alternatives to cash and cheque for making transactions. Such new practices have led to the development of a truly global, seamless and Internet enabled 24-hour business of banking. ICT revolution both in terms of innovation rate, speedy operation, and cost per unit (portraying reduction in average total and marginal costs) has made a good number of banks embrace the use of ICT infrastructure in their operations (Akinuli, 1999). The technological innovation that is being witnessed currently in the Nigerian banking sector is possible of impacting on the banks’ mode of transactions especially in their payment systems. The payment systems are made feasible by ICT gadgets such as Automated Teller Machine (ATM), Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT), Clearing House Automated Payments (CHAPs), Electronic Purse (E-PURSE), Automated Cheque Sorter (ACS) and Electronic and Transfer at Point of Sale (EFTPOS), which have made transactions easy and convenient. This phenomenon is capable of bringing about speedy operations and enhanced productivity (Adeoti, 2005; Ovia, 2005). Though there may be little interruptions at times due to network failures, which may make customers unable to carry out transactions at that point in time. This little shortcoming is not in any way comparable to the days when banking halls were characterized by long queues mainly as a result of delays in the traditional banking operations. Now banks can provide comprehensive services to their customers by making them access their accounts via online services. These instruments have an edge over the traditional payment instruments because it is safer, more efficient, convenient and cost effective. Before the introduction of these ICT services in the banking industry, manual processing of documents were in use. The bankers were made to cope with this onerous task, and the process made business transactions minimal. Besides several hectic procedures, people had to contend with, banks’ customers were inevitably made to spend several hours in the congested banking halls in carrying out their transactions (Ovia, 2005). The present situation The ICT culture in Nigerian economy can be said to be on the increase. Nigeria is the largest Internet subscriber in Africa with about 100,000 Internet users as at 2000, which was estimated to have grossly increased (Balancing Act, 2007). It has also been observed that Nigeria’s telecommunication density had remarkably increased by more than 2,550% from 0.35% in 1992 to 9.3% in 2004, thereby greatly exceeding the International Telephone Union’s (ITU) benchmark of 1% (Ndukwe, 2005). This phenomenon has helped banks keep substantial information on-line which reduces the cost of marketing their products. Being a competitive tool, it enhances the creation of customized services, reduces the cost of operation, and improves productivity as well as profitability. More interestingly, almost all the banks in Nigeria have internet and on-line real time banking facilities which has improved the scope of Nigerian banking. It has aided transfer of funds from one location to another without any involvement of facial transactions thereby reducing the incidence of loss of funds to stealing and the likes. Another recent one is the telephone banking technology that allows customers to have transactions on their accounts by calling a particular telephone number, through voice activation, and using a tone pad. All of these improve the comfort of banking transactions. THE TYPES OF ICT SUBSTRUCTURES USED IN BANKS Ovia (2005) opined that ICT adoption will improves three critical domains which are efficiency, quality, and transparency in any organisation. Agboola (2001) discussed the dimensions in which automation in the banking industry manifest in Nigeria. They include: Bankers Automated Clearing Services: Automated Payment Systems, Automated Delivery Channels. In the analysis done by Alawode and Kaka (2008) on ICT infrastructures used in Nigerian banks between the periods of 2000 to 2008, found a proportionate increase in adoption and use. The specific ICT infrastructural use within year 2000 to year 2008 include Internet Access; Internal Network; SMS Alert; Substitution of Postal Mail; ICT Security Measures; Authentication and Automated Payment System. The tabular presentation of the ICT structures and the analysis are presented below. This analysis and other recent literature will form the basis for evaluation of ICT adoption success or otherwise, and informs its inclusion in this seminar paper. TABLE 2.1:SURVEY DATA OF SOME SELECTED BANKS IN NIGERIA AND THEIR UPTAKE IN SOME ICT INFRASTRUCTURES Serialnumbers| ICT infrastructures| Percentage of Nigeria Banks that use a particular ICT infrastructure within year2000 to year 2008.| | | 2000 – 2002| 2003 – 2005| 2006 – 2008| 1| Internet Access | 27%| 88%| 91%| 2| Internal Network| Wire based| 68%| 82%| 92%| | | Wireless| 08%| 19%| 28%| 3| SMS Alert| NIL| 22%| 98%| 4| Substitution of Postal mail | 18%| 38%| 88%| 5| ICT Security measures| 62%| 81%| 94%| 6| Authentication| 33%| 76%| 85%| 7| Automated PaymentSystem| 1%| 28%| 87%| Source: Alawode and Kaka (2008) Internet Access: An important indicator of the general uptake of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in the Banking Industry relates to the use and availability of Internet. Internet access is a precondition for e-Business, as this is the main channel for e-banking. The general availability of Internet allows for the analysis of overall ICT-readiness in the Banking Industry. The Table shows that 91% of Banks studied in Nigeria have access to the internet within year 2006 and 2008, While 27% and 88% from year 2000 to 2002 and from year 2003 to 2005 respectively. The drastic change that occurred from 27% to 88% from year 2000 to 2002 and from year 2003 to 2005 respectively was as the result of ICT awareness competitive products introduced by some the so called â€Å"new generation banks†. Virtually all other banks also braced up to satisfy their customers and there was general improvement in the services and products of Banking Industry. Use of Internal Network: The application of networks is a vital part of an effective ICT-enabled system, which is especially true in the case of banks with a branch network. Local Area Network (LAN) may also be seen as a basic indicator of the minimum infrastructure required to enable companies to conduct e-banking at a substantial level. Wire-based LAN is currently the dominating technology. The survey shows that 92% banks surveyed use wire-based LAN from year 2006 to 2008. The fact that LAN is a relatively low-tech and easily attainable ICT solution, would to some extent explain the wide coverage of this technology from year 2000 to 2008. Wireless LAN is a relatively new technology in the Banking Industry, and is used to permit bank employees to access network resources from nearly any convenient location. The fact that, wireless LAN is relatively new technology accounts for its low percentage uptake in Banking Industry. Use of SMS alert: Instant notification of transactions made was another innovation brought by ICT through the use of smart phone in conjunction with the internet facility in the Banking Industry. Virtually all banks studied in Nigeria use SMS-Alert, except some of the Micro-finance Banks. It was an ICT infrastructure that recorded no patronage between year 2000 and 2002. Substitution of postal mail: The Banking Industry is currently being renewed in many areas. One of these areas relate to the digitalization of formerly paper-based processes. Electronic mail is increasingly being applied for especially non-legal correspondence like account statements, marketing and sales. More than 80% banks surveyed have substituted electronic mail with old postal mail within year 2006 to 2008. This outcome shows that, efficiency gains from electronic mail are yet to be reaped and indicates that the Industry is a bit fragmented in its uptake of electronic mail as means of communication. ICT security measures: The security issue is of special concern in the Banking Industry, as banking is highly based on trust from its customers. Hence, the risk of hackers, denial of service attacks, technological failures, breach of privacy of customer information, and opportunities for fraud created by the anonymity of the parties to electronic transactions all have to be managed. Depending upon its nature and scope, a breach in security can seriously damage public confidence in the stability of a financial institution or of a nation’s entire banking system. Hence, by introducing the appropriate security measures and putting security concerns at ease, the BI might be able to attract the segments among consumers who previously were not inclined to use e-banking. Furthermore, it is also in the banks’ own interest to improve security, as digital fraud can be costly both in financial losses, and in terms of the damage it does to the brand of the bank in question. Authentication: The common concern among users of e-banking is related to the authentication of users and data connections. The use of digital signatures is not as common as PIN codes or encryption, and reason is the fact that digital signature is relatively new technology. The research even shows that none of the studied banks uses digital signature as the form of authentication, but the up-take in other types of authentication is generally high, up to 85% within the year 2006 and year 2008. Automated Payment System: Devices used in Automated Payment Systems include Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) and Electronic Funds Transfer. ATM still ranked higher in its spread than Electronic Funds Transfer, Low rate of spread of this technology might be due to cost, fear of fraudulent practices and lack of facilities necessary for their operation. But generally speaking, the adoption of Automated Payment System increased dramatically. The table shows the increase from 28% to 87% within the range of 3-years. BENEFITS OF ICT ADOPTION ON BANKING INDUSTRY Many researchers have agreed on some benefits that accrue to ICT adoption and use in the banking industry. These include among others: Enhanced operational efficiency. The use of ICT in the banking industry enhances the operational efficiency of the banks (Madueme, 2009). For example, the use of SMS alert, an ICT infrastructure that recorded no patronage among Nigerian banks between year 2000 and 2002, has presently aided instant notification of transactions. Improved quality of service delivery. Many researchers (Ikechukwu, 2000; Madueme, 2009; Fenuga & Oladejo, 2010) confirm that the application of ICT to banking operations has undoubtedly enhances the quality of customer service delivery in the banks. The uses of ICT-based payment systems such as Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) and Electronic Funds Transfer have actually improved the service delivery of Nigerian banks to its customers. For example, a money transfer transaction that used to take me days to transact has been reduced to a matter of few minutes. For a case in point, last week, I sent money to my brother through UBA bank and before I got to the gate after the transaction, I got a call from him confirming that his account was credited through a message alert. Increase in customer satisfaction. This benefit derives from the one above. According to Fenuga and Oladejo (2010), the adoption and use of ICT in the banking industry has increased customers’ satisfaction due to improved quality of banking services. Referring to the above case of personal experience, it is unequivocal that customer satisfaction has markedly increased as a result of adoption and application of ICT in Nigerian banks. Improved profit performance. Another important benefit of the adoption and use of ICT in the banking industry has to do with improved profit margin. Many studies (Baba & Harker, 1997; Ikechukwu. 2000; Madueme, 2009; and Oladejo & Adereti, 2010) have shown significant and positive correlation between ICT adoption and profitability of organisations. Increase in market shares. When ICT is successfully adopted and applied to banking operations, the overall performance of the banks is improved and this manifest in the corresponding increase in market shares, profitability and other indicators of performance (Oladejo & Adereti, 2010). Enhanced competitive advantage. Researches by Ikechukwu (2000) and Oladejo and Adereti, 2010 have lent credence to the fact that application of ICT to the operations of the banks has boosted their operational efficiency and brought about greater competitive advantage in the industry. EFFECTS OF ICT ON BANKING INDUSTRY Agboola (2001) studied the impact of computer automation on the banking services in Lagos and discovered that Electronic Banking has tremendously improved the services of some banks to their customers in Lagos. The study was however restricted to the commercial nerve centre of Nigeria and concentrated on only six banks. He made a comparative analysis between the old and new generation banks and discovered variation in the rate of adoption of the automated devices. Aragba-Akpore (1998) wrote on the application of information technology in Nigerian banks and pointed out that ICT is becoming the backbone of banks’ services regeneration in Nigeria. He cited the Diamond Integrated Banking Services (DIBS) of Diamond Bank Limited and Electronic Smart Card Account (ESCA) of All States Bank Limited as efforts geared towards creating sophistication in the banking sector. Ovia (2000) discovered that banking in Nigeria has increasingly depended on the deployment of Information Communication Technology and that the ICT budget for banking is by far larger than that of any other industry in Nigeria. He contended that On-line system has facilitated Internet banking in Nigeria as evidenced in some of them launching websites. He found also that banks now offer customers the flexibility of operating an account in any branch irrespective of which branch the account is domiciled. Cashless transactions were made possible in our society of today. The mover of the economy (Banking Industry) is now well positioned to meet-up with the new challenges from the costumers, competitors and even from the nation’s economy with right tool in their hand to reach limitless point of success. The Industry is now growing on daily basis with respect to new innovations that are coming out in the world of technology. Evaluation The banking business in Nigeria today can be assessed as being highly ICT based. The analysis of Alawode and Kaka (2008) ICT infrastructures used in some selected banks between year 2000 to year 2008 as earlier presented in table 2.1 clearly indicate the steady growth of ICT application in Nigerian Banks. Internet access usage, for example, rose from 27% between years 2000-2002 to 91% between years 2006-2008. SMS Alert that was nonexistent between the periods of 2000-2002 rose from nowhere to 98% between years 2006-2008. Similarly, Automated Payment System that was barely 1% between years 2000-2002 rose dramatically to 28% in years 2003-2005 and sky rocketed to 87% between years 2006-2008. The research, which provided the above analysis, is over 5 years old now. Considering the rate of growth reported in the analysis, it is obvious that most of the infrastructures may have reached their full potential. Drawing from above background, one could reasonably accept Akinuli’s (1999) viewpoint when he observed then that it appears Nigerian banks were reaping most of the benefits of revolution in technology, as can be seen by its application to almost all areas of its activities. Adeoti (2005), Ovia (2005) and Osabuohein (2008) in separate remarks affirmed the fact that the technological innovation witnessed in Nigerian banking sector is possible of impacting on the bank’s mode of operations especially in their payment systems. It is indeed unequivocal to state that ICT adoption in Nigerian banks has broadened the scope of banking practices and changed the nature of banking as well as the competitive environment in which they operate. Such new practices have led to the development of a truly global, seamless and Internet enabled 24-hour business of banking. In summary, the adoption of ICT in Nigerian banks can be said to be a success though not without some challenges. Challenges The automation of banking operations is really posing challenges to the Consumers, the banks themselves and Regulatory/Supervisory authorities in Nigeria. Among the issues concerned are: Infrastructural deficiencies: It is obvious that the use of ICT in the banking industry require minimum level or basic infrastructure such as electricity, telecommunication and motorable roads. Yet all these remain great challenges even as they feature as manifestos in all political campaigns. Ineffectiveness of telecommunication service providers and epileptic supply of electricity have often times cost people to spend days suffering to recover trapped cards in ATMs. For example, there was a day my friend’s card got trapped for only God knows the reason, but on a Saturday when the banks staff could not be accessed to recover neither the card nor alternatively withdraws money at UBA Aliade road branch. He had to wait until Monday morning to recover his card. Whatever his purpose for wanting to access money must have been defeated. Consumer Awareness and capacity: A major challenge of ICT banking to many illiterate and semi-literate population of the country who reside in rural areas is lack of awareness of how the systems work and their inability to access the services which mostly exist in cities and high populated work areas or institutions. Access to ATM and GSM Telephones: There are inadequate banking facilities to cover for the growing population of Nigerians who can access the services. Many households are unable to afford terminals and all accessories required for operating in today’s banking system. The recent Federal government’s 60 billion naira telephone project for 10 million farmers (Olatunji, 2013) is one exemplification that majority of Nigerians are too poor to afford a telephone, a necessary accessory for accessing ICT banking services. Consumer Protection: Another major challenge of adoption of ICT is the absence of statutory or regulatory provisions to protect the consumer of the products/services. Fraud: So much fraud has been reported within and outside banks due to ICT adoption. The high exposure of the system to fraudsters, hackers and other criminally minded persons who could access, retrieve and utilize confidential information from the system if security measures are weak; to checkmate unauthorized intrusion is another challenge to the authorities. Systems Operational Risks: Bank IT rests on computers and telecommunications which could be susceptible to system failure, internal manipulations and inconsistent regulatory policies (Etim, 2000). Conclusion Concerns about ICT role in attaining effectiveness, efficiency and productivity were raised in the late 1980s. Since then a large number of studies have emerged both at the industry and firm level that have substantially improved our understanding of the relationship between ICT and firm performance. This paper has clearly defined what ICT is and presented a review of relevant literature to aid understanding of the historical antecedents or reforms that necessitated its adoption in Nigerian banks by assessing the benefits and effects, and the journey so far. The paper further evaluated the success of ICT adoption as well as addresses the challenges it has posed to banks, consumers of services and supervising authorities. The paper concludes that the adoption of ICT has influenced the content and quality of banking operations positively. From all indications, ICT presents great potential for business process reengineering of Nigerian Banks. It is imperative for bank management to intensify investment in ICT products to facilitate speed, convenience, and accurate services, or otherwise lose out to their competitors. Recommendation This paper recommends that investment in information and communication technology should form an important component in the overall strategy of banking operators to ensure effective performance. References Adam, J.A. (2005). Banking Sector Reforms: The Policy Challenges of Banks Consolidation in Nigeria. Selected Papers for 46th Annual Conference, Nigerian Economic Society, August 23-25. Adeoti, J.O (2005). Information Technology Investment in Nigerian Manufacturing Industry: The Progress So Far. Selected Papers for the 2004 Annual Conference, Ibadan: Nigerian Economic Society, 213-244. Adeyemi, K.S (2006). Banking Sector Consolidation in Nigeria: Issues and Challenges. Union Digest, 9(3&4) June (http://www.unionbankng.com/adeyemi.pdf). Agboola, A. A. (2006). Electronic payment systems and Tele-banking services in Nigeria. Journal of Internet Banking and Commerce, 11(3), 112-124. Agboola, A. A. (2001). Impact of Electronic Banking on Customer Services in Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of Economics and Financ, 5(1&2), 45-73. Akinuli, O.M. (1999). Information Technology in Nigeria’s Banking Industry: Operational Applications, Problems and Future Challenges. CBN Bullion, 23(3), 71-75. Alawode, A. J. and Kaka, E. U. (2008). Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and Banking Industry. Proceedings of the 1st International Technology, Education and Environment Conference, African Society for Scientific Research (ASSR) 673-677. Aragba-Akpore, S. (1998). The Backbone of Banks’ Service Regeneration. Moneywatch, July 22, p23. Baba, P. and Harker, P. (1997). Examining the Contributions of Information Technology towards Productivity in United States Retail Banks. Pennsylvania: Wharton School. Balancing Act, (2007). Balancing Act News Update (http://www.balancingact- africa.com/country_profile.php?id=24). CBN, (2006). Press Release. The Guardian, Vol.22 (9902), January 3, p.11. Diamond Bank, (2005). Banking Industry Report, Strategic Planning Unit, December (http://www.diamondbank.com/public/Banking%20Industry%20Report%20December%202005.pdf). Etim, S. O. (2000). Electronic Banking: The Risks in the Insurance. A Paper Presented at Centre for Insurance Research Luncheon, Lagos, May 23. Fenuga, O. J. and Oladejo, R. K. (2010). The Effect of Electronic Payment on Customer Service Delivery in Nigerian Banks. International Journal of Economic Development Research and Investment, 1(1), 5-16. Frenzel, C.W. (1996). Information Technology Management, Cambridge: Thomson Publishing Company. Harold, B. and Jeff, L. (1995). Don’t Let Technology Pass You By. ABA Banking Journal, 73-81. Iganiga, B.O (1998). Contemporary Issues in Money and the Nigerian Financial System, Lagos: Amfitop Books. Ige, C.S (2007). Reforms in Development. The Reformers, 2(1), 4-16. Ikechukwu, G. (2000). Enhancing the Performance of Banking Operations through Appropriate Information Technology in Nigerian Banking Industry. Ibadan: Spectrum Books. Madueme, I. S. (2009). Impact of information technology on the ptofitability of commercial banks in Nigeria. International Journal of Business and Common Market Studies, 6(1&2), 112-121. Ojo, J.A.T. (2007). Financial Sector Maladaptation, Resource Curse and Nigeria’s Development Dilemma. Public Lecture, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, January 25. Oladejo, M. O. and Adereti, A. S. (2010). Impact of information technology on the performance of microfinance institutions in Ogun state, Nigeria. International Journal of Economic Development Research and Investment, 1(1), 44-55. Olatunji, S. (2013). FG to give rural farmers N60bn cell phones. Punch, January 3, www.punching.com/business/business economy/fg-to-give rural-farmers-n60bn-cell-phones/ Osabuoheien, E. S. C. (2008). ICT and Nigerian Banks Reforms: Analysis of Anticipated Impacts in Selected Banks. Global Journal of Business Research, 2(2), 67-76. Ovia, J. (2000). From Banking Hall to E-Platform. Financial Standard, January 15. P. 6. Ovia, J. (2005), Enhancing the Efficiency of the Payment System in Nigeria. CBN Bullion, 29(1), 8-18. Soludo, C.C. (2004). Consolidating the Nigerian Banking Industry to Meet the Development Challenges of the 21st Century. An Address Delivered to the Special Meeting of the Bankers’ Committee, Abuja, July 6. Woherem, E. W. (2000). Information Technology in the Nigerian Banking Industry. Ibadan: Spectrum.

20 Best Christmas Gifts Ideas for College Students

20 Best Christmas Gifts Ideas for College Students It all comes down to this, a legendary list of the 20 best Christmas gifts for college students that will make you a seasonal rock of Gibraltar; a Christmas hero! 1. A Really Cool Tetris Light These are probably the coolest door room lights to hit the world since the Lava Lamp. Stackable, colorful and cool the Tetris Desk Light is an awesome choice. Boys and girls will love them. We sure do! 2. A Pair of Quality Headphones College roommates often have different sleeping patterns because theyve got different classes and different class schedules. Time in the room is usually accompanied by video, gaming or noisy internet browsing. A pair a quality headphones is a college student’s best tech-friend. 3. Gift Cards This is universal. Don’t give college kids money because it will almost never be spent on what it should be. Gift cards direct their focus and they’re far more likely to buy necessities like food and toiletries. 4. Dorm Room TV (Space Saver) Flat space saving digital TV’s that can sync with gaming consoles and computers are awesome! Plus, they’re not bulky at all. If the model you choose can be wall-mounted, then there’s nothing better. Furthermore, these days the prices are ridiculously low. Not long ago even buying a smaller quality TV for college kids was spendy. 5. Someone Else’s Wallet? This is a neat idea, and a great way to buy a new wallet for the guys. Get a nice new wallet and then fill it with things like gift cards, new photographs, perhaps sporting event or movie tickets etc. Just a neat way to give a bundle of gifts at the same time in a small package that’s super easy to send in the mail. 6. Gourmet Coffee College kids are the only people on earth who drink more coffee than corporate office bees. The problem is that 99.9% of the time it’s cheap and not so tasty. A nice big bag of gourmet coffee is that understanding and supportive gift that all students appreciate (if they drink coffee that is). 7. Study Abroad Money Most students who study abroad are even more broke while they’re away in some exciting new place than when they’re back in their dorm room. If you can give them some extra spending money for the trip, they’ll never forget it, ever. 8. One-Stop-Shop Bathroom Kit These really are appreciate and used extensively. Don’t think this kit will go to waste because it won’t. Well, maybe some of the little accessories might not get used but the major components never fail. Razors, shaving cream, cologne, soap etc. Mainly because the stuff in the campus store is horrible. 9. An Assortment of Great Sauces College students aren’t known for being good cooks. They just put any old thing together and call it food. That being said, a box of assorted and tasty sauces will be used within a month. Maybe before New Years†¦imagine the flavors of Top Ramen they could conjure up. 10. Shower Slippers The kind that you can wear into the shower to protect your feet and then they dry off super quick so you don’t track water down the hall. Nobody wants athletes foot or to step into someone elses bodily fluids, whatever kind that may be. 11. A Traditional Popcorn Serving Set Seriously, who eats more popcorn than college students? You can survive on the stuff! It would be neat to have a quality serving set that looks just like the kind you get at the movies. How cool is that? 12. High-Brow Bedding Goes without saying†¦ 13. New Laptop Again, an incredible tool that will be used (and abused) and every penny will be squeezed out of it. No college students neglects a new laptop. It’s almost the equivalent to buying them a new used car (except the laptop should be new). You get the idea. 14. Beer Pong Table and Set Yeah, really. Everyone loves the game, but very few students have the table and set. Your kid could be THAT kid in the hall. Hey, college is about networking. 15. DVD Set of Favorite TV Series Are they a crazed Walking Dead fan? Sure, they probably know how to watch every episode online for free, but having their own set they can watch whenever is actually really handy. 16. Clean (Actually White) Socks and Undies Always needed†¦ 17. A Laundry Hamper with Style It needs to have some flare or it will go unnoticed and blend into the disaster area of clothes around it. 18. Good Food Baskets! Can’t go wrong here. A sure winner 100% of the time without fail. 19. Subscription to Netflix All the kids are getting them. That’s the rumor anyways. Beware! Some students become addicted to Netflix in no time. 20. Set Them Up with a Classy Interview! What a novel idea right? Perhaps the ultimate gift you can get a college student this year is to pull some string and set them up with a quality interview. With so many options to choose from it was hard to narrow down the list into a top 20 type presentation. Therefore, we updated the list adding 20 more Christmas gifts ideas for college students. Check them out! Well, here’s your chance students. What would be the perfect Christmas gift for you?

construction project observations essays

construction project observations essays After several months of planning and design, excavation for the new ACES library on the University of Illinois campus began in May 1999. The project is sponsored and will be owned by the Board of Trustees for the University of Illinois. Six separate contractors are working together under one general contractor. The project, which began in May of 1999, is scheduled to be completed by February 2001. Through informal interviews with Charles O. Pickar we learned that the project is 4-5 weeks behind schedule. Pending weather conditions 25 to 35 workers usually present on site. The typical workday can run between 6:30am and depending on deadlines can last until 9-10pm. As of the third week in January 2000, the concrete foundation and the steel framework for the five-story structure, with the exception of the roof, were intact. The appendix of this report contains photographs of observed procedures and site materials. On the morning of January 27, two massive 18-wheel trucks carrying various shapes and sizes of steel beams were unloaded on site. It took almost two hours to unload each truck. A crane approximately 200 ft. high was used to move the steel from the truck onto wooden planks on the ground. The steel was separated by shape, and by using the quite large reaching span of the crane, the workers were able to deliver the beams directly from the truck to their appropriate sides of the site. This operation involved a six-man crew. Two men connected the hooks from the crane onto the steel. Two men guided the steel onto the planks on the ground. Two men took turns operating the crane. This process was very time consuming due to the amount of steel needed to be lifted entirely over the five story structure to the other side of the site, and due to what seemed to be a lack of experience of the rigging crew. It took them a very long time to make the connections on each beam, and check for security. These factors may have influen...

Every AP English Language and Composition Practice Exam

Every AP English Language and Composition Practice Exam SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips With the AP English Language and Composition exam coming up, it’s important to find the best practice resources, and that includes practice tests!The AP Language and Composition exam has two sections: a multiple-choice section with 52-55 multiple questions, and a free-response section with three essay questions- one synthesis prompt, one analysis prompt, and one argument prompt. But not all AP Lang practice tests are like the real exam, and they aren’t all of equal quality. In this guide, I’ll break down where you can find official College Board AP Language and Composition practice test resources, other free resources out there, and paid practice tests and questions. I’ll also break down which resources are high-quality and how to best incorporate AP English practice tests into your exam preparation. Official Practice Resources The best practice test resources come from the College Board. This is because they are the ones who create and administer all AP exams, including AP Lang and Comp, so their materials are the closest to the real, actual questions you will be seeing on test day! If you practice with material that’s close to the actual exam, you’ll feel more comfortable when you are actually taking the test. Therefore, when possible, it’s best to use College Board materials. However, it’s worth noting that official resources for AP Language and Composition are a little bit sparse, especially when compared to the AP Literature exam. There are, in general, three resources that the College Board offers for any given AP exam: complete released exams, released free-response questions from previous years, and sample questions from the â€Å"AP Course and Exam Description.† Complete Released Exams Unfortunately, the College Board doesn’t appear to have released any official complete AP English Language and Composition practice exams, so I have nothing to link to here. However, you can probably find at least one entire past exam by Googling â€Å"AP Language complete released exam† or similar variations on that. Make sure any AP Language and Composition released exams you get this way have answer keys, though! You might also ask your AP teacher if she has any copies of old AP exams you can use for practice. AP teachers can purchase past exams from the College Board that students don’t have access to. Shemay not be able to let you take them home, but even then you could be allowed to use them in a supervised setting. Released Free-Response Questions The College Board has posted years and years worth of past AP Language and Composition free-response questions that are at your disposal for practice purposes. However, only the tests from 2007-onward include the same three question types that are on the test currently. Earlier tests include two rhetorical analysis questions instead of a synthesis question. Sample Questions From the â€Å"AP Course and Exam Description† The AP Course and Exam description for AP Language and composition includes 50 multiple-choice questions (so, just two questions short of a complete multiple-choice section) and three free-response prompts: one synthesis prompt, one analysis prompt, and one argument prompt. This means that the sample questions from the Course and Exam Description are just two multiple-choice questions shy of being a complete AP English Language and Composition practice exam, so if you want to use it as one you definitely can. In fact, if you can’t find any official tests either from Google or your teacher, I advise it. Otherwise, you can add these College-Board approved questions to your practice bank! Put them in the bank! Free Unofficial Resources Outside of the College Board, there are lots of sites offering free practice questions for the AP Language and Comp exam. But which ones will actually help you? Since anyone can slap together a few questions and call it an â€Å"AP Language and Composition Practice Test,† how do you sort the wheat from the chaff? I’ve combed through tons of free resources so you don’t have to! Presented in order of quality, from best to worst, here’s my list of all the free AP Language practice tests and quizzes I could find out there. College Countdown Complete AP Language Practice Test College Countdown offers a complete unofficial practice test, essays and all. While the exact wording of the multiple-choice questions isn’t exactly the same as on a real AP exam, the tasks are very similar and the passages are well-selected. The essays are solid examples of the AP essay prompt style, although you could also substitute the unofficial free-response section for an official past free-response question if you wanted to make the experience even closer to a real AP. Also, there are robust answer explanations. This is an especially good resource given that there isn’t an official College Board-released exam for this test. McGraw-Hill AP Practice Quiz The academic publisher McGraw-Hill offers a 25-question multiple-choice diagnostic quiz for the AP English Language exam. The quiz is nominally 25 questions, but you might actually be able to get more than 25 questions’ worth of practice out of it because every time you open a new test window you get a subset of questions that are randomly selected from a question pool. This quiz has pretty difficult, well-written multiple-choice questions that actually resemble real AP questions, so it’s a particularly good resource. The passages do open in another window, though, which is a small annoyance. Albert iO AP English Language Practice Albert offers a huge number of mini-quizzes on analyzing the rhetoric of various notable nonfiction passages. The questions don’t exactly sound like genuine AP questions- the style is a little more informal and to the point- but they are decent practice for answering questions about rhetorical techniques as applied in a given passage. You can’t access the most difficult questions if you don’t pay, but all of the other question levels are free. High School Test Prep AP Language Practice Tests High School Test Prep offers four short practice tests, each offering questions about a given nonfiction passage. The question style is definitely different from that of true AP questions; like the Albert questions, they are written in a more stylistically simplistic way. Additionally, the ratio of questions about the passage overall versus specific moments in the passage is weighted much more heavily towards overall passage questions than the real AP exam. However, these are still decent rhetorical analysis practice questions, and this resource isan especially good choice if you find yourself struggling with identifying the major themes and arguments of passages overall. Varsity Tutors AP English Practice Tests Varsity Tutors offers very short, skill-specific quizzes. The questions don’t sound all that much like AP questions, and every question asks about a different short passage, which is a little bit bizarre and inefficient. Additionally, not all of the specific skills they offer quizzes in are super-relevant to AP Language (e.g. â€Å"Motives and goals of characters†). However, if you feel like there are very specific rhetorical techniques you are confused about, taking some of the quizzes here could be a good study strategy.If you want to track your scores, you can make a free account with Varsity Tutors, but it’s not necessary to be able to access the quizzes. 4tests.com AP English Language Exam This site offers a 35-question AP English Language and Composition practice exam. The questions are somewhat overly basic and passages are not particularly similar in style or content to actual AP Language passages, though. Additionally, the interface is a little bit clunky. I would only use these if you desperately need some additional, very basic rhetorical analysis practice. Clunky like a retro calculator. Paid Unofficial Resources If you need even more practice, there are also paid unofficial practice test resources available. Review Books Review books usually contain one or more complete practice tests and are a great resource when you run out of free resources. Not all review books are equally high-quality, though- be sure to look at reviews (and check out the questions by flipping through the book at the bookstore if you can, to see how similar they are to actual AP questions). As a starting place, Barron’s and the Princeton Review both generally offer high-quality AP review books. Shmoop - Paid Subscription Shmoop is a test prep subscription service that offers material for a variety of standardized tests, including AP Language and Composition. I can’t advise as to the quality of the material or the questions, though, because the service has an access cost of a dollar a day. Peterson’s AP Practice Tests A bundle of two AP Lang and Comp practice tests from this site costs twenty dollars. I couldn’t find much information or reviews as to the quality of the material, though, so this is a bit of a gamble. You’d likely be better off buying a well-reviewed review book with practice tests. How to Use Practice Resources in Your Exam Prep How to best use practice resources as you study depends a lot on what kind of practice material you are using. I’ll review how to make the most of different types of resources here. Complete Practice Exams (Official and Maybe Unofficial) The best way to use complete practice tests is to do full timed practice-runs for exam day. Bring a clock, a timer, and a hefty supply of pencils into a quiet room and have at it! A practice-run will help you to feel more comfortable when it’s time to take the exam for real in May. If you have access to multiple practice tests, you can even take complete tests at different times in the studying process to see how you’ve improved and what you still need to work on. When you do take practice tests, it can be helpful to get someone else to help grade your free-response essays based on the rubric. You should aim to take your first full-length practice test around the beginning of your second semester. Normally I advise to only use official College Board practice tests for this, but since easily accessible complete official exams for the AP Language and Composition exam are sparse, you may want to supplement with the practice test from College Countdown linked to above. Official College Board Practice Free-Response and Sample Questions Released free-response questions from past years are best for practicing specifically for the free-response section in a targeted way. You can work on the prompt types that you find the most difficult or practice outlining essays in a certain amount of time, or writing all three essays in 120 minutes. If you don’t use the Course and Exam Description as a practice test, the multiple choice questions are great targeted practice for the first section of the text. It will help you get familiar with the College Board’s question style and work on your rhetorical close-reading. Unofficial Practice Quizzes and Questions Unofficial practice quizzes and questions just aren’t going to be as much like the real AP exam as College Board materials. However, while they aren’t as helpful for prepping for the exam format or question styles, they are still good practice for building your rhetorical analysis skills, which is critical for the exam. High-quality unofficial resources are definitely worth your time. Building rhetorical analysis skills: more complicated than building with blocks. Key Takeaways Practice tests are a key AP prep resource. The best resources come from the College Board, but unfortunately, official College Board resources for AP Language and Composition are a little bit sparse as compared to some other AP exams.However, there are also tons of unofficial resources, and some are high-quality. Most are free, but a few are paid. Once you have your resources assembled, you might not be sure how to use them. Complete practice tests are best for mimicking the experience of the actual exam, sample Official questions are best for targeted section practice, and unofficial practice tests are best for rhetorical analysis skill-building. You’re ready to practice your way to AP success! What's Next? We also have complete practice test lists for AP Literature,AP US History, AP Chemistry, AP Biology, AP Psychology, and AP World History. Or see our guide to finding the best AP practice tests for any exam. Taking the AP Literature exam? See our ultimate guide to AP Literature. Wondering if you should be trying for an AP test perfect score? Or maybe you just need more guidance on how to study for AP exams. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. 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ECONOMICS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

ECONOMICS - Essay Example The recovering signs of the world economy due to good performance by the policymakers led to the fall of gold prices as the demand for gold fell due to higher return on investment in other class of assets. Gold, Long a Secure Investment, Loses Its Luster: Background overview During the period of economic recession, the prices of gold soared and became the sought after investment for the investors. The rise in the prices of gold meant that the world economy was not performing well. Due to the economic recession and the global financial meltdown from 2008 to 2011, the gold prices reached its highest peak in 2011. This could be observed from the producer price index as given below. Due to the crisis in the economy, the total factor productivity of the nations was hit and the factors of production were affected due to the downturn of the economies. The crisis in the economy gave rise to a situation of liquidity crisis. The fall in income levels of the people led to the fall in consumptio n demand in the economy. Due to this, the productivity of the business houses and industrial bodies fell. The fall in revenue and profitability led to the erosion of wealth of the shareholders and market investors. Along with this the erosion of confidence of the investors on the stock performance of the companies led to the fall of valuation of the companies and market indices. As a replacement for the investment in stock markets, the investors confided on the investment in gold markets (McGuire, 2010, p.37)1. The investment in gold was considered to be lucrative as prices of gold increased on the back of high demand for gold. An investment in gold offered higher returns on investment and there was no erosion of wealth from the amount of investment. Apart from that gold could be sold at any point of time and was considered as marketable investment. The presence of large number of buyers gave the opportunity to transform it into cash at any point of time. All these factors led to th e rise in the prices of gold. Investment in gold was deemed to be an investment that would in which the returns obtained would never be lowered (Northcott, 2010, p.46)2. The spurt in he gold prices over the last few years fuelled by weak economic conditions has been represented below. Demand and Supply Analysis The fluctuation in the price of gold could be explained from the demand supply curve for gold as given below. As the demand for gold rose in a weaker economic condition, the demand curve shifted from position 1 to 2 depicted by the red line. As a result, in order to maintain a position of equilibrium with the supply, the prices of gold rose from P1 to P2. The reverse is also true for fall in prices for gold as a result of fall in demand. Gold looses its luster: Rational behind plunge in gold prices The unexpected plunge in the prices of gold in recent times has occurred as result of recovery in the performance of the economies all over the world. The correct strategies adopte d by the policymakers in order to maintain a proper balance of supply and demand in the economy, controlling inflation through appropriate interest rates, fiscal and monetary policies have led to turn around of the economies of the world. The economic reforms and recovery from the economic recession led to improvement in the performanc

Critical Thinking Question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Critical Thinking Question - Essay Example The modern societies particularly lay stress upon regular medical check-ups and professional medical counselling for the masses; however, the families sometimes develop their personal health goals, in the light of the experiences of senior family members, as well as according to the counselling they have obtained from the medical advisors in past. However, the most important step towards determination of family health goals is hiring the services of a qualified professional nurse, which can provide a comprehensive fitness scheme for the adequate healthcare of the family. Thus, acting upon the wise counselling and professional schemes of the nurses serves as the best way to maintain health and fitness of the entire family. Since nurses are the qualified medical attendants, their prudent guidance regarding diet and exercise, keep the family away from illness. Nursing is a highly significant profession, and the nurses pay their duties in a systematic manner to resolve the issues related to healthcare. They put aside their own comforts and forget about their individual needs for the cause of others; it is therefore family healthcare is a far cry without seeking help from the nurses. â€Å"Nursing is a demanding profession that requires dedication. Nursing is not a 9 to 5 job because sometimes, you may be assigned to work the graveyard shift or extend beyond 8 hours of work especially when there are a lot of patients to attend to.† (Quoted in lifeinfozone.com) Hence, role of the nurses is vital in keeping the society in proper working. Consequently, almost all American and European families have obtained their services for children, adults and elderly alike. â€Å"The purpose and the reason for the nurse’s contact with the family guides the initial information collected about pertinent areas of family functioning. Initial information shared by the family will help guide the nurse in determining what other data to collect.† (Lundy & Janes, 2009: 752) It is also a reality that some families regard the advices made by the nurses as undue interference in their personal life. They are of the view that since nurses are unaware of the family diseases and inherited illness, they are unable to provide a wise counselling. Hence, instead of curing the individuals, they may make the case more complicated and serious. They act upon the advice of their heart and start taking diet and exercises of their own choice. Not only this that they do not consult medical specialists regarding diet etc, but also they get involved into self medication policy, which serious damages their heart, stomach and kidneys even, turning them frail and flimsy. â€Å"There are many people who are facing a wide variety of stresses, discouragements, disappointments and other events and situations that take an emotional toll on their lives. Sadly, many people feel there isn’t much they can do to help themselves, their loved ones or their business associate s who are having a tough time. Or, they feel that medication is the only answer.† (evancarmichael.com) Hence, they become victim of the drug addiction. Consequently, regular medical check-ups by professionals is inevitable for the maintenance of life. One of the most initial steps taken towards the establishing of personal health goals is applying of regular medical c

Analysing Conflict Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Analysing Conflict - Coursework Example A rookie metallurgist, who had been responsible for monitoring furnace conditions during melting processes and oversee casting processes, was also assigned the task of manually operating the overhead crane to fill in the molds with the molten steel. A foundry, being a stressful work environment, often makes things delicate with no chance for error and apprentice engineers are often made to undertake all responsibilities of the technicians for them to get acquainted with the equipment and work process. Under such circumstances, the fresh metallurgist filed a complaint against the foundry manager for assigning him tasks he was overqualified for, feeling that the task was below him and further took it as a personal insult or at minimum, an obstruction to his career. This case became the center of contention in the workplace hindering work shifts causing a rift between the technical labor and the engineers. To avoid spreading this chaos to other departments, the company decided to deal w ith the case by giving the metallurgist a hearing with the top management. Most of the top managers being in favor of the current process turned down most of the suggestions by the metallurgist which resulted in legal threats and further complication of the case. The contention, shortly followed by a previous cooled down conflict between labors and the top management, that had put the fresh engineers on wrong side of technician workforce had now also put the top management, engineers and managers alike, on a third stance further complicating the situation. In this case, experienced employee engineers were requested to intervene, to prevent legal ramifications or work process hindering, as a process of informal mediation. Conflicts can generally be divided into three main categories: relationship conflict, process conflict and task conflict. A relationship conflict would mainly consist of issues like personal discrimination and interpersonal conflicts between employees or the involve d people, task conflicts on the other hand are less of hindrance to the work process itself in general and often results in positive discussions about task improvement and goals. Process conflicts are more negative and often invite combinations of other conflicts to increase complications since the main issue is about the work process and the way things are being handled at work or a project. Greenberg (2003) describes a process conflict to be a clash of views about how task accomplishment should proceed in terms of assigned duties and tasks, responsibilities and accountability. A successful mediator needs to gather some essential data about the conflict in order to be fully equipped for dealing with the situation. The first thing to do is to understand the nature of the conflict. The three basic types defined above are essential to be considered. Once the nature of the conflict is known, the mediator would determine the underlying needs of the involved parties. Irvine and Adam Gers ch (2002) suggest such data gathering to be one of the basic roles of the mediator. Statistical data gathering has been termed as a best practice for mediation in contentious issues for satisfaction of the conflicting parties. Further data gathering would involve the types of tasks the perceived aggrieved party was made to perform in regards to the example of the metallurgist. These tasks would then be

How Internet Shapes Contemporary Social Environment Research Paper

How Internet Shapes Contemporary Social Environment - Research Paper Example A vastly different world exists today due to the spread of Internet use which relies to a great extent on the concept of redundant networks to assure continuous connections in whatever conditions. This paper examines how computers and the Internet have changed the world environment where people increasingly rely on these two products of modern technology to do anything they want. The Internet has altered the way people work, live, transact their business, how they can bank their money, communicate with each other, socialize, research for some information and in many ways previously inconceivable just a few decades ago. One can find knowledge with just a few clicks of the mouse. However, one thing the Internet has changed in a very profound way is how it made the world a much smaller place and various cultures now become homogeneous. Instant communications have allowed people to know more about each other and various cultures around the world. Information travels very fast at the speed of light (or the connections). Language barriers are being brought down because of the Internet; it has also allowed people to learn more about the culture of far-away countries in an instant. World culture is largely defined by the mass media (multi-media such as the television, newspapers, online libraries, the Internet and pop culture such as hip-hop music) and there is now an easier intermingling of various ideas. World culture is now largely defined as instant gratification, people are unwilling to wait longer than necessary when they want something or search for some answers to nagging questions. The Internet is all about building communities (albeit online groups such as Facebook and Twitter).

Research proposal (research method) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Research proposal (research method) - Essay Example This research would particularly determine the impact on the family after the institutionalization of the patient. Accordingly, the sample would be taken from at least ten different nursing homes. The family members of at least three patients who have been diagnosed with alzheimers from ten nursing homes would be mailed a letter inviting them to participate. There may be reluctance on the part of some of them to participate and comply with the research. Only those that have been institutionalized for over three months would be included in the research process because a minimum time is needed to determine the impact. The hospital authorities would first be approached to collect a list of the Alzheimer patients and then the family members who have been in regular contact with the patient contacted through mail. This would include primarily the children but if grandchldren too have been involved as seconday caregivers, they would be included. The questionnaires would be mailed to the caregivers as they may be reluctant to speak out or fatigue and depression may distort responses. It is assumed that they would be willing to give vent to their feelings in the settings of their own homes which would also help to maintain privacy. Data would be collected through self-completion questionnaires as this method of data collection allows the ability for unambiguous quantitative data to be collected (Redmond & Griffith 2003). This questionnaire wud be developed specifically for this study although guidelines may be adopted from previous studies. Wherever possible, family members that have been secondary caregivers would also be asked to complete the questionnaire in addition to the primary caregivers, which would help to corroborate the results. This would be particularly helpful for this research because it is essential to determine how the caregivers are affected after the

How Internet Shapes Contemporary Social Environment Research Paper

How Internet Shapes Contemporary Social Environment - Research Paper Example A vastly different world exists today due to the spread of Internet use which relies to a great extent on the concept of redundant networks to assure continuous connections in whatever conditions. This paper examines how computers and the Internet have changed the world environment where people increasingly rely on these two products of modern technology to do anything they want. The Internet has altered the way people work, live, transact their business, how they can bank their money, communicate with each other, socialize, research for some information and in many ways previously inconceivable just a few decades ago. One can find knowledge with just a few clicks of the mouse. However, one thing the Internet has changed in a very profound way is how it made the world a much smaller place and various cultures now become homogeneous. Instant communications have allowed people to know more about each other and various cultures around the world. Information travels very fast at the speed of light (or the connections). Language barriers are being brought down because of the Internet; it has also allowed people to learn more about the culture of far-away countries in an instant. World culture is largely defined by the mass media (multi-media such as the television, newspapers, online libraries, the Internet and pop culture such as hip-hop music) and there is now an easier intermingling of various ideas. World culture is now largely defined as instant gratification, people are unwilling to wait longer than necessary when they want something or search for some answers to nagging questions. The Internet is all about building communities (albeit online groups such as Facebook and Twitter).

Workplace Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Workplace Communication - Essay Example They have communicated their reservation about the O-ring’s potential for failure but as the disaster would tell, they were not able to send their message across effectively. The launch still commenced leading to the explosion of the Shuttle just seconds after the launch. It became clear that the Challenger Disaster was a communication issue as reported by the findings of Roger Commission, the body that was formed by President Ronald Reagan to investigate the explosion. The result of the investigation showed that the people in the telephone conference from Marshal Space Flight Center had different understanding of the message that the engineers were trying to convey which is why the Shuttle was still launched despite of the engineer’s reservation. The Columbia Shuttle flight 107 disaster may have a different circumstance from the Shuttle Challenger but it still ended up in disaster just like its predecessor. The common culprit is again miscommunication. Again, the engineers had expressed their reservation about the foam prior to the Columbia launch. But they were not able to communicate its message to the proper authorities effectively so the launch was still commenced ending in the same tragedy. Both the tragic stories of Space Shuttle Challenger and Columbia taught me the importance of not only communicating my message clearly and completely, but I should also consider if my messages are reaching the intended audience at a right time and opportunity. This story may be funny but sometimes working with senior citizens in the office can have humorous implications. I took a summer job before and this is where my experience happened. Our boss can already be considered as a senior citizen but he is still brisk at work. One time, I was asked to write a report for a monthly meeting which I happily obliged. I gathered all my data at the office and told my boss that I will have it done by the weekend and will send

Plato vs. Aristotle Essay Example for Free

Plato vs. Aristotle Essay Plato and Aristotle, two philosophers in the 4th century, hold polar views on politics and philosophy in general. This fact is very cleverly illustrated by Raphaels School of Athens (1510-11; Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican), where Plato is portrayed looking up to the higher forms; and Aristotle is pointing down because he supports the natural sciences. In a discussion of politics, the stand point of each philosopher becomes an essential factor. It is not coincidental that Plato states in The Republic that Philosopher Rulers who possess knowledge of the good should be the governors in a city state. His strong interest in metaphysics is demonstrated in The Republic various times: for example, the similes of the cave, the sun, and the line, and his theory of the forms. Because he is so involved in metaphysics, his views on politics are more theoretical as opposed to actual. Aristotle, contrarily, holds the view that politics is the art of ruling and being ruled in turn. In The Politics, he attempts to outline a way of governing that would be ideal for an actual state. Balance is a main word in discussing Aristotle because he believes it is the necessary element to creating a stable government. His less metaphysical approach to politics makes Aristotle more in tune with the modern world, yet he is far from modern. Platos concept of what politics and government should be is a direct result of his belief in the theory of forms. The theory of forms basically states that there is a higher form for everything that exists in the world. Each material thing is simply a representation of the real thing which is the form. According to Plato, most people cannot see the forms, they only see their representation or their shadows, as in the simile of the cave. Only those who love knowledge and contemplate on the reality of things will achieve understanding of the forms. Philosophers, who by definition are knowledge lovers, are the only beings who can reach true knowledge. This concept has to be taken a step further because in The Republic, Plato states that philosophers should be the rulers since they are the only ones who hold the form of the good. Plato seems to be saying that it is not enough to know the forms of tables or trees, one must know the greatest formform of the goodin order to rule. The reasoning is: if you know the good, then you will do the good. Therefore, philosopher rulers are by far the most apt to rule. In The Republic, Plato builds around the idea of Philosopher Rulers. Even though it is not his primary point, it certainly is at the core of his discussion of the ideal state. The question that arises is, Why do you need ideal states which will have philosophers as rulers? There are many layers to the answer of this question. The first thing is that a state cannot be ideal without having philosophers as rulers. This answer leads to the question, Then why do you need ideal states to begin with? The Republic starts with a discussion of Justice which leads to the creation of the ideal state. The reason why an ideal state is needed is to guarantee the existence of Justice. This does not mean, though, that there cannot be states without Justice. Actually, Plato provides at least two reasons why the formation of a state cannot be avoided. These are: 1. human beings are not self-sufficient so they need to live in a social environment, and 2.each person has a natural aptitude for a specified task and should concentrate on developing it (The Republic, pp 56-62). Although a person is not self-sufficient, a composition of peoplea statesatisfies the needs of all its members. Furthermore, members can specialize on their natural fortitudes and become more productive members of society. States are going to form, whether purposefully or coincidentally. For this reason, certain rules have to be enacted for the well-being of the state. The main way to institutionalize rules is through government and in the form of laws. Platos The Republic is not an explication of laws of the people. It is a separation of power amongst three classesRulers, Auxiliaries, Commonersthat makes the most of each persons natural abilities and strives for the good of the community. The point is to create a harmonious unity amongst the three classes which will lead to the greater good of the community and, consequently, each individual. The three classes are a product of different aptitude levels for certain tasks amid various individuals. Plato assigns different political roles to different members of each class. It appears that the only classes that are allowed to participate in government are the Auxiliaries and, of course, the Philosopher Rulers. The lower class does not partake in politics because they are not mentally able. In other words, they do not understand the concept of the forms. Thus, it is better to allow the Philosophers, who do have this knowledge, to lead them. Providing food and abode for the Guardians is the only governmental responsibility the lower class has. The Auxiliaries are in charge of the military, police, and executive duties. Ruling and making laws is reserved for the Philosopher Rulers whose actions are all intended for the good of the state. To ensure that public good continues to be foremost on each Rulers agenda, the Rulers live in community housing, hold wives/children in common, and do not own private property. The separation of classes is understood by everybody Self-interest, which could be a negative factor in the scheme of things, is eliminated through a very moral oriented education system. All these provisions are generated to maintain unity of the state. The most extravagant precaution that Plato takes is the Foundation Myth of the metals. By making the people believe, through a myth, that the distinction of each class is biological as well as moral, Plato reassures that there wont be any disruption in the harmony of the state. Whereas Platos The Republic is a text whose goal is to define Justice and in doing so uses the polis, Aristotles The Politicss sole function is to define itselfdefine politics. Aristotle begins his text by answering the question: Why does the state exist? His answer is that the state is the culmination of natural associations that start with the joining of man and woman (pair), which have a family and form a household; households unite and form villages; villages unite and form the state. This natural order of events is what is best because it provides for the needs of all the individuals. Aristotle, like Plato, believes that a person is not self-reliant. This lack of sufficiency is the catalyst in the escalating order of unions among people. In The Politics, it appears that Aristotle is not very set on breaking down society. His argument says that there are different classes in society, but they are naturally defined. For example, he devotes a lot of time to an explanation of the naturalness of slaves and their role in society. Aristotle is also very sexist and explicitly states so. His view is that women are inferior to men in all senses. Perhaps the most pertaining to our discussion is the citizen, whose role is purely political. Both Plato and Aristotle seem to agree that some people are not capable of practicing an active role in political life. Platos reason is that the lower class is not mentally adept for the intricacies of higher knowledge on the good. Aristotle seems to base his opinion on a more political issue. He believes that only those that fully participate in their government should be considered citizens of the state. For this reason, he excludes workers as citizens because they would not have the required time to openly participate in politicking. The Aristotelian polis, as opposed to Platos, is a city with a large middle class which promotes stability and balances the conflicting claims of the poor and the rich. Aristotle combines elements of democracy with elements of aristocracy, again to balance opposing claims. Because he is aware that human interest is an inextricable entity, the distribution of scarce and valuable goods is in proportion to contribution to the good of the polis. This system provides for the self interested who believe that those who work harder should receive more. Another point is that the citizens rule and are ruled in turn, insofar as the mixed social system allows. This is permissible because of the strong involvement of the citizens in government; it is what one would call a true democracy. Overall, a spirit of moderation prevails. The philosophies of Aristotle and Plato have been around for over sixteen centuries, yet today it is difficult to find specific instances where either philosophy is applied. This may be a result of the fact that todays political philosophy differs from both philosophers. While Aristotle and Plato uphold the good of the community or state above individual good, todays constitution includes a bill of rights that guarantees the rights of each individual in the nation. Having these individual rights is a necessity for todays citizens. Going back in history to 1787 will show that one of the reasons there was controversy in the ratification of the constitution was that it did not include a Bill of Rights. When the drafters promised that as soon as the constitution was ratified, a Bill of Rights would be added, the doubting states proceeded to ratify it. According to Plato and Aristotle, a Bill of Rights is not necessary because it does not improve the good of the community. Another point of discrepancy between the philosophers and todays society involves the topic of slavery. Aristotle argues for the naturalness of slavery in The Politics, yet slavery has been considered grotesque for quite some time. In correlation to slavery, there is the undermining of the female population by Aristotle. Although Plato is a lot less discriminatory, he also believes women are the sub-species. While women have had to fight endless battles to achieve the recognition they deserve, today it is a well accepted fact (generally) that women are as capable as men in performing tasks. Naturally, since Aristotle and Plato have been around for such a long time, our society certainly contains some of their influences in a general sense. For example, today it is believed that certain people are born with certain capacities. Intelligence has been attributed to genetics. Because of the different intelligence levels among people, we have different classesfor example: advanced, intermediate, and beginners. In their appropriate level, each person develops his or her abilities to the highest potential. This concept is sometimes at odds with the ideal of equality, ie. we are all human beings. Yet, in essence, it does not take away from the ideal because we are all humans, but we differ in certain capacity levels to complete tasks. Platos and Aristotles philosophy have helped shape present thought, though, by no means, mandate our practices. The philosophers are very community oriented while we value the individual. Besides differing with todays standards, each philosopher is in his own way distinct. Plato is very attracted to metaphysical philosophy, while Aristotle is much more methodical. Both perspective views are and will continue to puzzle students for years to come.